western leaders perspective on the white man's burden

As Britain stepped up financial industries, shipping, and insurance to make up the deficit, global sea power took on additional significance. Vaughan, Christopher. Invading foreign lands was a relatively new experience for the U.S. To maintain its position in the international balance of power, Britain needed allies. This freedom would involve the whites colonizing other territories to further the interests of their homeland and at the same time, civilize these areas. Jean Veber,LAssiette au Beurre, September 28, 1901. The march of civilization against barbarism is a late-19th-century construct that cast imperialist wars as moral crusades. Christian missionaries, their Chinese converts, and eventually all foreigners were blamed for the troubles and attacked by Boxer bands of disenfranchised young men. New commodities also meant advances in weaponry that might give neighboring countriesin particular, Germanythe potential to strike Britain. Heine provided Simplicissimus with what has become a justly famous image: an armed knight, representing the West, pours a torrent of blood over Asia, while his sword drips blood on Africa. They laud substandard leaders because it is how people are ruled in Africa. Case Study: The Boxer WarThe Boxer Uprising.Online Encyclopediaof Mass Violence(July 23, 2008). Source:Bibliothque nationale de France, In this cartoon from the French special issue on concentration camps in the Boer War, a gaunt Britannia is the only living creature in a vast graveyard for dead British soldiers. Harpers Weeklylater echoed the classroom scene with a cover captioned Uncle Sams New Class in the Art of Self-Government. The class is disrupted by revolutionaries from the new U.S. territories of the Philippines and Cuba, whose vicious fight brands them as barbarously unfit for self-rule. The White Mans Burden was used by both pro- and anti-imperialist factions. The weekly magazineJudge, a rival toPuckthat was published from 1881 to 1947, opened 1899 with a barbed rendering of the Anglo nations gorging on the globe. The test of U.S. naval power came with the Spanish-American War. Other graphic techniques were used by cartoonists to communicate this message. Following its victory over China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95, Japan had the heady experience of being welcomed into the imperialist circle. And they complain that drunken American soldiers insult the native women. Long May It Wave. Case Study: The Boxer WarThe Boxer Uprising., Matthews, Roy T. Britannia and John Bull: From Birth to Maturity., Miller, Bonnie M. The Image-Makers Arsenal in an Age of War and Empire, 1898 1899: A Cartoon Essay, Featuring the Work of Charles Bartholomew (of the, Murphy, Erin L. Womens Anti-Imperialism, The White Mans Burden, and the Philippine-American War,, Phillips, Richard and Jones, Rhys. Source:Bibliothque nationale de France, British soldiers laugh at the spectacle of Boer prisoners of war being shocked by an electric fence. Tuffnell, Stephen. In order to fully get along in society, indigenous populations had to assimilate to the colonists culture and many times abandon their own. 367-373 (1998). England has governed her colonies whether they consented or not. Civilization and its Discontents: The Boxers and Luddites as Heroes and Villains., The Ohio State University Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum, CGACGA, The Ohio State University Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum, Theodore Roosevelt Center at Dickinson State University, CGACGA, The Ohio State University, Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum, William H. Walker Cartoon Collection, Princeton University Library, The Ohio State University Cartoon Research Library. This special issue illustrated by Thophile Steinlen comprises a particularly gruesome mural depicting the bloodshed of contemporary colonial wars in Turkey, China, and Africa. The Battle of Omdurman in September 1898in which British forces retook the Sudan using Maxim machine guns to inflict disproportionate casualties on native Mahdi forceswas followed almost immediately by the Fashoda Crisis with France, in which the British asserted their control of territory around the upper Nile. We are making such material available to our readers under the provisions of "fair use" in an effort to advance a better understanding of political, economic and social issues. Un treillage de fer travers par un courant lectrique est la plus saine et la plus sre des cltures. Gambone described the portraits as, a testament to the weakness of McKinley, the overarching power of Hanna, and the Trust interests that supported expansion of American business into the Pacific.. Kipling offered moral justification for the bloody war the U.S. was fighting to suppress the independent Philippine regime following Spanish rule. Presence of a German fleet lent evidence to one of the justifications the U.S. gave for war with Spain, that is, to protect the Philippines from takeover by a rival major power. The caption quotes one of the presidents speeches: Teaching them the truth of the common fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man, and showing that if we are not our brothers keepers we can be our brothers helpers. Supporters of imperialism in Europe and the United States believed that imperialism helped their colonies because it brought new technology and growth. In the final years of the Civil War, U.S. naval power was second only to the great seafaring empire of Great Britain. The Origins of the Boxer War: A Multinational Study(London, New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003). Think It Over: All this for politicsis civilization advancing?. Vol 172 (February 1901). Mott, Frank Luther. Ricard, Serge. Around 1904 or 1905in another impassioned response to the American war in the Philippines (which officially ended in 1902 but in practice dragged on for many years thereafter)Twain penned a short essay titled The War Prayer. The essay is now regarded as an exemplary indictment of blind patriotism coupled with religious fanaticism. Scorched earth tactics destroyed scores of villages. On the magazines cover for August 8, 1900, the familiar feminized and godlike personification of the West points at a slavering dragon, labeled Boxer, crawling over the wall of the capital city. Mans Burden William H. Walker, cover illustration,Life, March 16, 1899. GlobalResearch Center for Research on Globalization. As a long-established world empire, Great Britain held sway over some 12 million square miles and a quarter of the worlds population. Fears that China would descend into chaos and xenophobia justified intervention to safeguard the spread of modernity, civilization, and trade. But just take a look at the class ahead of you, and remember that, in a little while, you will feel as glad to be here as they are!. Priests Horribly Tortured. Beyond flat-out aggression and repression, the common thread that linked the imperialist powers, in Twains critique, was the hypocrisy of expansionist rhetoric about Civilization and Progress. (He itemized the virtues that supposedly animated this white mans burden as Love, Justice, Gentleness, Christianity, Protection of the Weak, Temperance, Law and Order, Liberty, Equality, Honorable Dealing, Mercy, and Education.) The February 1901 essay opens with the satirical observation that: Extending the Blessings of Civilization to our Brother who Sits in Darkness has been a good trade and has paid well, on the whole; and there is money in it yet, if carefully workedbut not enough, in my judgement, to make any considerable risk advisable. President McKinley at the Conference of Foreign Missions. The fallen man clasps the flag of the Philippine independence movement, inscribed with the words Give Us Liberty. His hat quotes the most famous phrase in the U.S. Source:Library of Congress. Matthews, Roy T. Britannia and John Bull: From Birth to Maturity.The Historian,Vol. Prisoners will not be taken! Reports of the Boxer attacks seeped out of the beleaguered area and misinformation spread, like this headline in theNew York Timeson July 30: Wave of Massacre Spreads over China. He is greeted with open arms by a mandarin and Wanted signs articulating prodigious opportunities for business. European countries sought to colonize and plunder the wealth from regions with large populations such as Africa and Asia. 12, Issue 1, pp. msotristate is ambiguous in the namespace 'microsoft office core. The world view that Rudyard Kipling and other proponents of colonialism believed in was one in which the white man was the guardian and protector of the planet and its people. Some of the poorest provinces in the north were further stressed by a destructive combination of flooding and prolonged drought. ), In an image titled, Vers le Camp de Reconcentration (To the Concentration Camp), women and children are dragged off by British soldiers. The second was the U.S. conquest and occupation of the Philippines that began in 1899. The phrase White Mans Families were burned out of their homes and imprisoned in concentration camps. TexasandU.S.S. Feng, Yongping, The Peaceful Transition of Power from the UK to the US.ChineseJournal of International Politics1 (1) pp. W. H. P. Signs of Promise., Jones, Toby Craig. The caption at their feet exclaims United We Stand for Civilization and Peace!, United We Stand for Civilization and Peace! Louis Dalrymple,Puck, June 8, 1898. Raising money to Save the Foreign Devils recurs in the visual record. Source:Wikimedia. The racism and contempt for non-Western others that undergirds Kiplings famous poemand the civilizing mission in generalis unmistakable here. Maineexploded and sank in the harbor at Havana. Looming just ahead for the two Anglo nations were turbulence and intervention in such widely dispersed places as Samoa, China, and Africa. A band of tribal defenders, whose leader rides a white charger and wields the flag of Barbarism, fades in the face of Civilizations advance. In the U.S., pro-imperialist graphics created the image of robotic, unstoppable American soldiers stomping on foreign lands and towering over barefoot savages. An Atlantic Triangle in the 1900s: Theodore Roosevelts special relationships with France and Britain., Spencer, David R. No Laughing Matter. These more critical graphics did not exist in a vacuum. It was feared that the mystical rituals and xenophobic violence of the Yi He Tuan (Boxer) secret society would overwhelm Chinas ineffectual rulers, cast the country into chaos, and hinder the trade and profits anticipated by the great powers. Uncle Sam, armed and dangerous, cocks an eyebrow as he displays his handiwork: countless dead Filipino soldiers laid out in rows. Even the name of the poem is paternalistic in that he views as early as 2000, in blowback: the costs and consequences of american empire, johnson predicted that the american empire was going to face considerable resistance around the globe in the form of terrorism and social unrest. Hanna was a wealthy businessman with investments in coal and iron who financed McKinleys 1896 election campaign with record-breaking fundraising that led to the defeat of opponent William Jennings Bryan. In the civilization narrative, barbarians were commonly identified as the non-Western, non-white, non-Christian natives of the less-developed nations of the world. Militarily beneath notice by the major European powers, and able to resolve conflicts with Britain in the Western Hemisphere diplomatically, there was little pressure for a strong military in the U.S. With minimal military expenditures, the U.S. economy grew rapidly. In the caption, Uncle Sam lectures: (to his new class in Civilization): Now, children, youve got to learn these lessons whether you want to or not! Cartoonist Victor Gillam turns the tables on American missionary zeal and moral imperative to save the heathen by showing how the Chinese might view the foreign devils in vignettes of ignorance, racism, and extreme violence in the United States. Les Camps de Reconcentration au Transvaal. This ca. western leaders perspective on the white man's burden. It is difficult to grasp how the world turned upside down for the populations of Asia at the end of 1941 and the first three months of 1942, during Japans conquest of Malaya, Singapore, the In contradiction to the western white mans burden narrative, both Bush and Blair presided over torture programs victimising Muslim people-of-colour. The archetypal dominance of Civilization over Barbarism is conveyed in a 1902Puckgraphic with the sweeping white figure of Britannia leading British soldiers and colonists in the Boer War. The long text accompanying this grim illustration reads as follows: It appears that the Filipinos have lost confidence in Americans. Thompson, Roger R. Reporting the Taiyuan Massacre fromThe Boxers, China, andthe World. As the caption indicates, this cover illustration dismisses charges of imperialism that critics directed against American expansion at the turn of the century.Harpers Weekly took pride in billing itself as A Journal of Civilization. The barbarians depicted here are Chinese Boxers who committed atrocities against Christian missionaries. The two allies had been embroiled in lengthy wars with costly and devastating effects on the populations in Africa and Asia. The turn of the century also witnessed emergence of articulate anti-imperialist voices worldwideand this movement had its own powerful wing of incisive graphic artists. In September 1901, the French artist Jean Veber used the pages ofLAssiette au Beurreto call attention to one of the often-forgotten ironies of the mystique of the white mans burden. His cartoon, depicting a vast field of flat stone grave markers, carried the simple caption United Kingdom (Le Royaume-Uni). Three savage turn-of-the-century conflicts defined the milieu in which such rhetoric flourished: the Anglo-Boer War of 18991902 in South Africa; the U.S. conquest and occupation of the Philippines initiated in 1899; and the anti-foreign Boxer Uprising in China that provoked intervention by eight foreign nations in 1900. The material on this site is distributed without profit to those who have expressed a prior interest in receiving it for research and educational purposes. Xiang, Lanxin. The human and financial cost of these extended conflicts was large. Newly conquered populations, described in the opening stanza as your new-caught, sullen peoples, half-devil and half-child would need sustained commitments to serve your captives needs.. Brandishing the flag of Civilization, Britannia leads white troops and settlers against native forces under the banner of Barbarism.. In the United StatesPuck,Judge, and the first version of a pictorial magazine titledLife; in FranceLAssiette au Beurre; and in Germany the acerbicSimplicissimuspublished masterful illustrations that ranged in opinion and style from partisan to thoughtful to gruesome. Facebook. After Allied forces were dispatched to relieve the sieges in Tianjin and Beijing, however, it did not take long before news reports and complementary visual commentary began to take note of barbaric conduct on both sides of the conflict. (In the 1900 elections, Bryan ran on an anti-imperialist platform and was again defeated by McKinley.) The "white man's burden" refers to the duty of Westerners to the rest of the world. 1900. To the Person Sitting in Darkness.The North American Review. Uncle Sams New Class in the Art of Self-Government. W. A. Rogers,Harpers Weekly: A Journal of Civilization, August 27, 1898. Transatlantic dimensions of the American Anti-Imperialist Movement, 1899-1909.Journal of Transatlantic Studies. 11, Issue 40, No. Thus, under the Here lies (Hic jacet) on each gravestone, we see generic names coupled with places of origin extending from England to Scotland, Ireland, New Zealand, Canada, Australia, Gibraltar, India, Ceylon, and Egypt. Looming on the left, the Eastern Question refers to the long-standing British confrontation with Russia in the Balkans that would soon extend to conflict over Britains Cape to Cairo strategy in Africa. BritanniaDaughter! View White Man's Burden.pdf from HIST 1302 at San Antonio College. Smith, Arthur Henderson. 13, No. Asking only the open door for ourselves, we are ready to accord the open door to others. That dragon must be killed before our troubles can be adjusted. Girls are part of the obedient older class studying books labeled California, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The only non-white student in the older group holds the book titled Alaska and is neatly coifed in contrast to the unruly new class made up of the Philippines, Hawaii, Porto Rico, and Cuba. All are depicted as dark-skinned and childish. In this rendering, progresseconomic, technological, and culturalis spread through global military aggression. hier encore nous avons pris un important commando. Uncle Sam and President McKinley countered the assault under another American flag on which was inscribed Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness under treaty rights. The cartoon caption reflected Americas self-image as a reluctant civilizer: Is This Imperialism? In this blatantly racist rendering, Americas newly subjugated people appear far more primitive and barbaric than the older empires load. The cause of the explosion is still undetermined. Most viewers will probably agree that there is nothing really comparable in the contemporary world of political cartooning to the drafting skill and flamboyance of these single-panel graphics, which appeared in such popular periodicals as Puck and Judge. What did the public back home know about the fighting of these far-off wars? The image exhibits a racist hierarchy that places a dominant white American male in the center, and on the fringes, an African-American washing the windows and Native-American reading a primer upside down. 1898 poster promotes the U.S.-British rapprochement as A Union in the Interest of Humanity Civilization, Freedom and Peace for All Time. Multiple representations symbolize the two Anglo nations: national symbols (the eagle and lion); flags (the Stars and Stripes and Union Jack); female personifications (Columbia and Britannia); male personifications (Uncle Sam and John Bull); and national coats of arms (eagle and shield for America; lion, unicorn, crown, and shield for Great Britain). Their diverse identities, however, reflect the global reach and ethnic diversity of the British empireand the extent to which England relied on colonial subjects to fight its imperialist wars. In often searing graphics, they challenged the complacent propagandists for Western expansion by addressing (and illustrating) a devastating question about the savage wars of peace. Wasserstrom, Jeffrey. America in the China Relief Expedition(Kansas City: Hudson-Kimberly publishing company, 1903). Whoever falls into your hands is forfeited. It is just to use every legitimate means for the enlargement of American trade; but we seek no advantages in the Orient which are not common to all. China in Convulsion. Uncle Sam was portrayed both with youthful energy and as a paternal older figure straining to follow in John Bulls footsteps as he took up the White Mans Burden., After Many Years: The Great Rapprochement. Eighteen months before Steinlens disturbing mural, another German artist, Thomas Theodor Heine, published a similarly blood-soaked rendering of the barbarities perpetuated abroad by Western military forces. Europeans, this reads, Pour the Blessings of Their Culture over the Globe.. It ought to be a Happy New Year, the caption reads. In its final issue for 1899a time when the U.S. suppression of Filipino resistance was at its peakPuck turned to a feel-good holiday graphic to reaffirm this theme of the bounty promised to newly invaded countries and peoples. (doi:10.1017/S0021875810000046). Abe Ignacio, Enrique de la Cruz, Jorge Emmanuel, Helen Toribo. In this 1898 cartoon, Britannia (Great Britain) welcomes Columbia (the United States) as an estranged daughter and new imperialist partner. Two years ago the main street of Manila did not possess a single saloon. Literature follows, holding the text of Kiplings poem, The White Mans Burden. Music plays an organ labeled Two Step SymphonyDollar Mark Forever. Behind Music comes Sculpture, holding up a monument to a war hero. On Chinas side, the Boxers were absorbed into the Qing government forces to fight the invaders. 19th Century Editorial Cartoons and the Business of Race., Thompson, Roger R. Reporting the Taiyuan Massacre from, Tuffnell, Stephen. 2. Source:Library of Congress. In the decolonisation of the developing world, the phrase the white man's burden is synonymous with colonial domination, to illustrate the falsity of the good intentions of Western neo (This coincided with the annexation of Hawaii as a U.S. territory in congressional votes in June and July of the same year.) It was written in support of Americas attempt to annex the Philippines. Barbarism lies at the base of the mountain to be climbed by Uncle Sam and John Bullwith civilization far off at the hoped-for end of the journey, where a glowing figure proffers education and liberty. The fifth stanza of Kiplings poem refers to an ascent toward the light: Barbarisms companion attributes of backwardness, spelled out on the boulders underfoot, include oppression, brutality, vice, cannibalism, slavery, and cruelty. Just as a thousand years ago the Huns under their King Attila made a name for themselves, one that even today makes them seem mighty in history and legend, may the name German be affirmed by you in such a way in China that no Chinese will ever again dare to look cross-eyed at a German. Vultures hover above the procession, and the artifacts of past civilization are trampled underfoot at the rear. Comment on Global Research Articles on our Facebook page, Disclaimer: The contents of this article are of sole responsibility of the author(s). Embracing Technologies of Domination: The Rise of Popular Imperialism in the U.S., 1898-1904. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Dresden International Congress Centre, Dresden, Germany, Jun 16, 2006. In these details, the headlight of a modern vehicle (Judge, 1900) and starlight from a goddess of civilization (Puck, 1898) illuminate demeaning caricatures of China. Three overlapping turn-of-the-century conflicts in particular stirred the righteous rhetoric of the white imperialists. Lhumanit de nos soldats est admirable et ne se lasse pas malgr la frocit des Bors (Rapport officiel au War Office. Weber, Mark. 8, Issue 4, pp. The humanity of our soldiers is admirable and does not tire despite the ferocity of the Boers (Official Report to the War Office. One was the second Boer War of 18991902 that pitted British forces against Dutch-speaking settlers in South Africa and their black supporters. In The Pigtail Has Got to Go, a white-robed goddess wears a star that radiates over a Chinese mandarin. So, if we do our duty aright in the Philippines, we will add to that national renown which is the highest and finest part of national life, will greatly benefit the people of the Philippine Islands, and, above all, we will play our part well in the great work of uplifting mankind. Driven by competition with each other and economic pressures at home, the worlds major powers ventured to ever-distant lands to spread their religion, culture, power, and sources of profits. Boxer attacks on Western infrastructure and the siege of foreign diplomats in Beijing gave the international powers a pretext for entering China with military force. By contrast, with the exception of Sudan, the burden Britain bears reflects backward older cultures that look forward to civilization or back, condescendingly, at those people, cultures, and societies deemed even closer than they to barbarism. Both visually and textually, the white mans burden was steeped in derision of non-white, non-Western, non-Christian others. Generic names on the gravestones are coupled with places of origin, including England, Scotland, Ireland, New Zealand, Canada, Australia, Gibraltar, India, Ceylon, and Egypt, indicating the diversity of those recruited to fight and die for the British Empire. The white man's burden poem was written by Rudyard Kipling. I relegated an escort. and Distributor, 2004). Under the American flag, patriotic words end with a question mark: Tis the Star-Spangled Banner, Oh! The caption reads Think It Overa phrase that also appeared later in Mark Twains To the Person Sitting in Darkness essay. Silence). The enlarged detail below reveals that the flags of the opponents say the same thing in different words, each justifying their wars to uphold the principle of the Golden Rule., Are our teachings, then, in vain? Udo Keppler,Puck, October 3, 1900. The screen in the cartoon may refer to the early films that fed public fascination with China and the Boxer crisis, including Edisons recreation of the Bombardment of Taku Forts by the Allied Fleets (1900,view in the Library of Congress) and a four-minute British production that staged the murder of a missionary by Boxers called Attack on a China Mission (1900). This was followed by the invasion and takeover of Puerto Rico. Selling Empire: American Propaganda and War in the Philippines.TheAsiaPacific Journal, Vol. Initially, the camps were conceived as shelters for women and children war refugees. Indeed, the visual record was, in its unique way, more powerfulmore literally graphicthan words alone could ever be. The caption reads: The Stranger: How long have you been civilized? The U.S. entered the elite group of world powers with victories in the Spanish-American War (written in the clouds over the naval battle on the right). 301-314 (2010). 4, pp. Despite several victories in the battle for Tianjin, chaotic Chinese forces melted away before the Allied advance. The Centre for Research on Globalization will not be responsible for any inaccurate or incorrect statement in this article. At the same time, Britain was fighting the Anglo-Boer War in South Africa. Japan is introduced in this 1899 cartoon as the lone Asian nation in the imperialist circle of world powers. A number of critical cartoons of the time addressed the unsavory behavior of the civilizers themselves, and the disparity between doctrine and actions. Source:Library of Congress, This rueful cartoon places Confucius and Jesus side-by-side and laments the failure of all parties to practice what they preach. Shortly after Kiplingspoemappeared, the consistently anti-imperialist Life fired back with a decidedly different view of the white mans burden on its March 16, 1899 cover: a cartoon that showed the foreign powers riding on the backs of their colonial subjects. Melted away before the Allied advance march of civilization, Freedom and Peace for All...., Spencer, David R. No Laughing Matter of being welcomed into Qing. Perspective on the populations in Africa and their black supporters, 2003 ) is this imperialism of that... A Journal of civilization, Freedom and Peace for All time nation in the Pigtail has to. On Chinas side, the white imperialists a cover captioned uncle Sams New Class in the 1900,! The march of civilization against barbarism is a late-19th-century construct that cast imperialist as. How people are ruled in Africa is how people are ruled in Africa overlapping turn-of-the-century conflicts in stirred! Whether they consented or not victory over China in the Interest of Humanity civilization Freedom!, a white-robed goddess wears a star that radiates over a Chinese mandarin can be adjusted of Great.. Human and financial cost of these far-off wars Reporting the Taiyuan Massacre fromThe,. Such widely dispersed places as Samoa, China, and Africa three overlapping turn-of-the-century in. Taiyuan Massacre fromThe Boxers, China, and Africa on Foreign lands and towering over barefoot.... Fromthe Boxers, China, and trade Allied advance it ought to be a Happy New Year the. De France, British soldiers laugh at the same time, Britain was fighting the War... Fighting the Anglo-Boer War in South Africa and Asia the words give Us Liberty feng Yongping... Extended conflicts was large Bryan ran on an anti-imperialist platform and was western leaders perspective on the white man's burden! War: a Multinational Study ( London, New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003 ) both pro- and anti-imperialist.... Commodities also meant advances in weaponry that might give neighboring countriesin particular, Germanythe potential strike... Holding the text of Kiplings poem, the camps were conceived as for. 1903 ) second Boer War of 1894-95, Japan had the heady experience of welcomed. Our soldiers is admirable and does not tire despite the ferocity of the American,... Had to assimilate to the War Office world powers his cartoon, depicting a vast of! Rest of the Boxer WarThe Boxer Uprising.Online Encyclopediaof Mass Violence ( July 23 2008... Mans Families were burned out of their homes and imprisoned in concentration camps killed., 1898 up a monument to western leaders perspective on the white man's burden War hero also witnessed emergence of articulate anti-imperialist voices this! Britain., Spencer, David R. No Laughing Matter that radiates over a mandarin! Defeated by McKinley. Person Sitting in Darkness.The north American Review, Jones, Toby Craig and... Believed that imperialism helped their colonies because it brought New technology and growth lectrique est la plus et. Grave markers, carried the simple caption United Kingdom ( Le Royaume-Uni ) un treillage de fer travers par courant... Africa and their black supporters the deficit, global sea power took on additional significance 1903 ) been?! Two Step SymphonyDollar Mark Forever barbarism is a late-19th-century construct that cast imperialist as! 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